The history of Ancient Egypt is divided into historical periods that, in general, alternate back and forth between the more stable Kingdom periods, and those years of relative instability known as the Intermediate periods.

Perhaps the most dynamic and fascinating of the Kingdom periods is that of the New Kingdom (1549-1070 BC). This was the time of some of the mightiest and most powerful Pharaohs, including Tuthmosis I and his grandson Tuthmosis III, who expanded the border of the Egyptian empire to the largest size it had yet seen. Pharaoh Hatshepsut, who ushered in a long era of peace, was also one of the most prolific builders in ancient Egypt (and a woman, besides).

If there was a major stumbling block along the road to prominence in the New Kingdom period it came with the ascension of Amenhotep IV (better known as Akhenaten), who attempted to drastically change the established religious order by exalting the previously obscure sun god Aten. His seventeen year reign was followed by that of the famous 'boy king', Tutankhamun, who in his short time as Pharaoh worked to reestablish the old religion, as well as restore diplomatic relations and economic issues that his father had neglected.

It is believed by many that the civilization of Ancient Egypt reached its cultural peak with Pharaoh Ramesses II - better known as Ramesses the Great. Possessed not only of the military might of both his Tuthmosis predecessors, but also with the same architectural drive as Hatshepsut, he led Egypt into a time of unprecedented wealth and prosperity which the empire had never seen before, nor would again.

While the history of the Sphinxes' Khemet obviously does not follow the same path as the history of Ancient Egypt - and although Khemet is a fantasy setting which includes fantastic creatures like the Sphinxes, Netjer, dragons, and others - the Khemet culture, architecture, music, religion, and daily life are meant to be very similar to that which would have been found in ancient Egypt.

The following sections below will provide brief information about what life in Ancient Egypt was like, in the hopes that this will help prospective and active roleplayers better understand and more easily picture the world of Khemet which their characters inhabit.

Housing

Unlike the more well known structures of stone, some of which remain today as evidence of the ancient Egyptian's architectural skill, everyday workhouses and homes were made from sun-baked mud bricks which were packed around a wooden frame. These adobe structures were used by commoners and nobles alike, for the materials were readily available from the banks of the Nile. Walls were painted white and windows were often covered with mats to keep out the wind, heat, and dust, while doors were made of wood.

Although commoner's homes were less grand in scale than those of the nobles, still many of their homes could be two or three stories tall. The first floor was reserved as a work and business space, while the upper floors were used as the living area. Many homes had stairs which went up to the roof, so that families could sleep in the cool open air at night during the summer season. In addition, cooking was often done on the roof.

The homes of the upper class were larger and more elaborate, and almost always included space for a courtyard and/or garden. The inside walls of homes were decorated with leather hangings, windows might be covered with wooden slats instead of woven mats, and the floors would be covered in tile. Nobles also would use the roof for cooking and to keep cool at night.

Food and Drink

The staple food and drink of Egyptian commoners was bread and beer. This was sometimes supplemented by grown vegetables, foraged roots or fruits, and occasionally dried fish. Meat was expensive, and therefore a rare treat, and was usually not consumed outside of festivals or other celebrations. Nobles and the wealthy, on the other hand, had a much more well balanced diet. Meat, water fowls, vegetables, fruit and wine were all part of their diet, in addition to the more typical bread staple.

The kitchen area was often in a corner of the courtyard or in the open air on top of the roof. Cooking was done both in clay ovens or over open fires, and wood was often used as fuel despite its scarcity. Very little is known about food preparation, but food was usually baked, boiled, stewed, fried, grilled, or roasted. To add flavor salt, onions, or other vegetables might be used. The majority of commoners used dishes that were made out of clay, while wealthy had dishes of bronze, silver, and even gold.

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Religion

The ancient Egyptian pantheon of gods and goddess is one of the most well known in modern times. For the Egyptians, belief in the many divine and in the afterlife was a part of their culture from the very beginning, and was integral to their way of life. Over the years the hierarchy of the pantheon would change, sometimes drastically (as with Aten), but usually the changes were gradual and more subtle. Often, conflicting ideas concerning the same god/goddess existed in different regions of the empire, but there is no evidence that priests made any attempt to reconcile these diversities. Indeed, they were not actually considered contradictory, but instead were believed to be part of the complexity of the great divine.

The gods were worshipped in temples, and typically each temple was dedicated to a single god or goddess. Unlike places of worship today, the temples in ancient Egypt were not open to the public and all eventually became administered by the state. Most were closed to all but temple officials and priests/priestesses, except for specific feast days or celebrations when the statue of the divine was brought outside for public worship. Citizens were limited to the temple courtyard, where they might place offerings of food, flowers, and perfume. In addition, people could worship the gods in the privacy of their homes, using small statues or amulets.

Class divisions and Gender equality

Ancient Egyptian society was very structured, and social status was considered extremely important, particularly by those of the upper class. Most numerous were the commoners, and generally those of the lowest class worked the land as farmers. The land they toiled on was often not their own, but instead governed by the state, temples, or nobles, whom they worked for. Artists and other craftsmen were a rank above, but their product was often still under state control for they were mostly employed by the temples and paid with money provided by the state treasury. The 'white kilt class', or nobles, governed their individual regions and could influence great power over the country, particularly during periods of weak central government.

Ancient Egyptian law, unlike that found in many of its contemporary neighboring civilizations, provided equal standing to all classes of citizens (except slaves), as well as equal protection for men and women. Just as men, women had the right to own and sell property, make contracts, marry and divorce, receive inheritance, and pursue legal disputes in court. Despite this legal equality, however, the reality of ancient Egypt was that the majority of the time women were limited to the domestic sphere looking after their husbands and families. Only rarely did women participate in administrative roles, with notable exceptions including women regents and pharaohs such as Hatshepsut and Cleopatra VI.

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Beauty and Hygiene

The ancient Egyptians placed a great value on cleanliness and appearance. Most Egyptians would bathe by taking a dip in the Nile River, or in one of the canals nearby. Evidence of bathrooms and tubs have been found, but theses were most likely limited to use by nobles and the upper class. The wealthy would also make extra effort to wash their feet in specially made small wooden or clay 'foot baths', which helped to keep their homes free of tracked dust and dirt. For commoners this mattered little - most Egyptians walked barefoot, but the floors of their homes were made of compacted earth and extra dirt brought in from outside would hardly have been noticeable. Soap was made from ash, clay, animal fat, and chalk.

Nearly all ancient Egyptians used cosmetics, regardless of their social status and gender. The standard colors were white, black, green, and red. Black khol, applied with a small stick to the eyelids and eyebrows, created the 'lined-eye' look seen on almost all surviving pieces of ancient Egyptian art we have today. Perfumes and scented oils were also used by men and women alike to cover sweat and body odor smell, and ancient Egyptian perfumes were famous throughout the Mediterranean.

Hair styles changed throughout the centuries, and hair length varied from long, to short, to shaved, and back again. Priests in particular (at least from the New Kingdom on) always shaved their heads, but most Egyptians had a natural head of hair which they sought to take good care of. Indeed, evidence of a number of remedies against hair loss have been found, and some people would attempt to disguise grey hair with the application of henna (sometimes tinted with various ointments to produce the needed color).

Wigs

If hair loss could not be slowed, then the Egyptians would often turn to wigs. Indeed, wigs were used even when an individual was not experiencing hair loss. Sometimes they were compelled to wear wigs out of necessity (needing to shave their heads bare because of lice) or to look their best for religious ceremonies or important public events, but other times it was simply out of a desire to escape the heat.

Both men and women wore wigs, which were often made out of real human hair. Sometimes wigs were supplemented with plant fibre or sheep's wool to add to the shape or volume of the hair. Wigs were made with an under layer of thin, tightly woven plaits, which were hidden beneath the thick, full curls or braids on top. After the curls were set, the hair was coated with a warmed mixture of beeswax and resin (which would harden when cooled), then looped through a netting and set into place with more wax.

The creation of wigs was both costly and time consuming, and because of this they were typically only owned by the wealthy. Wigs could come in just about any color - brunette and black hair was likely the most popular, but the ancient Egyptians could also create blonde wigs as well. It wasn't unusual for wigs to have additional adornments, either. Simple additions, such as ribbons, beads, or flowers easily served to make any wig unique, while those with the extra money might choose to decorate their wigs with gold jewelry or precious stones.

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Leisure and Entertainment

Music was an important part of ancient Egyptian life, especially during festivals and processions. For those who could afford the instruments, music was probably a part of daily life as well, perhaps at night when groups of family and friends wanted to socialize together. Early instruments included the flute and harp, while later came trumpets, drums, tambourines, bells, oboes, and double pipes.

The ancient Egyptians enjoyed a variety of board games as well. Senet was a game for two, and although Egyptologists don't know exactly how it was played, it is believed that it was a game based on skill and chance, and it was played by people from all social classes. Mehen was popular during the Old Kingdom, and its circular board was reminiscent of a coiled snake. The pieces used to play included three lions, three lionesses, and red and white spheres. Like Senet, no one knows how the game was originally played, though it is theorized that this was a game of skill rather than luck.

For the nobility, fishing and hunting was a source of entertainment, rather than from a real need to put food on the table. Much like today, sportsmen enjoyed leaving the bustle of home and towns behind to spend a few days out in the wilderness with like-minded companions.

Stone Architecture

Stone was a building material typically reserved for only the largest and most important of building projects, such as temples, tombs, pyramids, and palaces. Stone buildings were typically erected on man-made rock surfaces. First, the builders would dig the foundation pit, and then fill it with water. The sides of the pit were then marked with a horizontal line along the edge of the water. After removing the water, the pit was then filled up with sand to the lines. On top of the sand were placed layers of broken rock, and finally, on top of that the rock slabs for walls and pillars were placed.

These types of foundations were relatively weak, and it was typically only because of the lack of rain that those stone buildings which we can still see now have survived.

The most common type of stone, which the bulk of structures were made out of, was limestone. In Upper Egypt, sandstone was also common. Decorative stone, or visible (outer casing) stone, could be granite, alabaster, or basalt. An important note - Egyptian alabaster (or calcite) is much harder than what is normally referred to as alabaster in modern times, which is soft enough to be carved with a fingernail.

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Trade

One of the most important materials obtained through trade was wood, which was a necessity for shipbuilding, as well as a highly desired luxury good used in homes and for furniture. As early as the Old Kingdom period Egypt had developed trade relations with Byblos, a country on the Lebanese coast which had plentiful amounts of cedar timber. They would remain a critical trade partner with Egypt for nearly two thousand years.

Gold was another prized commodity, and although Egypt had some natural gold deposits it was not enough to fulfill the country's needs. In Predynastic times, trade with Nubia provided extra quantities of gold, and later on the Egyptian Empire conquered both Nubia and the Sinai. During the Old Kingdom, trade with Punt provided another venue for Egypt to attain this precious metal.

The traders themselves ran many risks in the course of their daily work. Whether traveling by land or by sea there was always the threat of theft. Outlaws and bandits waited for caravans on the desert roads, and pirates were a known threat in the Gulf straights. In addition, it was not unknown for some of the local nobility to steal a trader's money. In such a case the traders might appeal to the regional king, in an attempt for for justice and to have their money returned.

Further Reading